Fast Facts About Gerald Ford - 38th President

Gerald Ford (1913-2006) served as the thirty-eighth president of the United States. He started his presidency in the midst of controversy after his pardon of Richard M. Nixon following his resignation from the presidency. He only served out the rest of his term and has the distinction of being the only president who was never elected to either the presidency or vice presidency.   Here is a quick list of fast facts for Gerald Ford. For more in-depth information, you can also read the Gerald Ford Biography Birth: July 14, 1913 Death: December 26, 2006 Term of Office: August 9, 1974 - January 20, 1977 Number of Terms Elected: No Terms. Ford was never elected to be president or vice-president but instead took office upon the resignation first of Spiro Agnew and then of Richard Nixon First Lady: Elizabeth Anne Bloomer Gerald Ford Quote: A government big enough to give you everything you want is a government big enough to take from you everything you have.Additional Gerald Ford Quotes Major Events While in Office: Ford grants Nixon an unconditional pardon (1974)Campaign Reform Law (1974)Communist victory in Southeast Asia (1975-76)Helsinki Agreement (1975) Additional Resources and Information This informative  chart of Presidents and Vice Presidents  provides at-a-glance  quick reference information on the presidents, vice-presidents, their terms of office, and their political parties. Richard NixonJimmy CarterList of American PresidentsChart of the First Ladies

Using Sip Procedures For Food Deprived Sprague Dawley Rats

Using SIP procedures in moderately-food deprived Sprague-Dawley rats, we found that adolescent males and females provided with scheduled delivery of banana pellets willingly drank notable amounts of 10% ethanol in a palatable solution (Boost ®) in short, 30 minute daily access sessions between the ages of P28 to P41. By collecting blood samples twice during the fourteen days of access, we established that this intake was often sufficient to raise BECs into the binge range ( 80mg/dl). Intake of individual animals was observed to occur in a binge-like pattern over days, typically characterized by a high consumption day followed by 1-2 days of drastically lower intake, cycling repeatedly. Such binge-like patterns were less evident in the†¦show more content†¦1b). This finding is inconsistent with prior literature, showing that SIP can be established with water only (Falk, 1961). Furthermore, in Experiment 2 where scheduled delivery was abolished, with animals receiving mass p resentation of pellets at the onset of the intake session, high consumption levels were nevertheless maintained. It is possible that the lack of schedule dependency per se may have been associated with limitations in the number of test days due to the time constraints of adolescence. Indeed, SIP with an ethanol solution is typically established in adult rats over a period of many weeks in the operant chambers, during which the concentration of ethanol is gradually raised (Falk et al., 1972). In preliminary work, we established the 14 day (P28-41) intake period, noting that consumptions declined notably as animals transitioned out of the early-mid adolescent period, an ontogenetic time course similar to what we have observed in home cage consumption studies (Vetter-O’Hagen et al., 2009). In Experiment 1b, animals given access to Boost ® without ethanol consumed on average more than twice as much fluid (ml/kg) per intake session than their ethanol-drinking counterparts in Experiment 1a. This is likely to be due to the high palatability of chocolate Boost  ® for adolescent rats, which is diminished by the combination of the bitter/sweet taste properties of

International human resource management Free Essays

Introduction Nowadays, most companies have been expanding internationally, many positions have to be filled which range from entry level positions to those of senior management. As more companies go global, the need for the transfer of skills and knowledge becomes essential if the company is to succeed internationally. To ensure that the subsidiary’s goals, practices and strategies are in line with the parent company, it is necessary to have senior management filled by qualified individuals capable of leading the new, inexperienced team and steering it in the right direction. We will write a custom essay sample on International human resource management or any similar topic only for you Order Now In addition, to ensure that the subsidiary inherits the culture and practices from the parent company, managers from the parent company might be deployed to fill senior management positions at the subsidiary. However, other positions at the subsidiary might be filled by personnel from local countries rather than the parent or host country. Personnel who do not hail from the host country are defined as expatriates. While recruiting the expertise of the expatriates might be advantageous, they bring a unique set of problems which need to be dealt with to ensure their efficiency. Although there are disadvantages associated with employing expatriates, there are measures that companies can adopt to ensure that the impact of these problems would be decreased. Advantages of Expatriates Expertise and Skills Employing the expertise of expatriates can help a company accelerate the development of its subsidiary or return it to profitability. The skills that they already possess will enable the expatriates to pass on their knowledge and skills to their subordinates and train them in the relevant skills and knowledge. When expatriates are selected for foreign assignments, they have to be chosen based on their skill levels and their ability to adapt. Therefore, when they pass their knowledge and skills to the employees at the subsidiary, the company is able to expand successfully. Despite having a successful 20 year run in Japan, a subsidiary company’s business volumes had decreased, causing its profit levels to dip. HTM Corporation concluded that this situation required the use of expatriates with high levels of technical and communication skills to return the business to its profitable level (HTM Corporation, 2009). As seen in this case, the expertise of expatriates is able to help c ompanies, previously profitable without expatriates, return to those levels as they have sufficient skills. Expatriates are able to bring lot of experience to the subsidiary company because the unique experiences may enable them to help the company succeed through innovation and creativity (Radio New Zealand International, 2009). Expatriates are also able to fill vacancies when the host country nationals do not have the relevant skills or expertise (Pacific Bridge Inc, 2009). This is an alternative to providing on-the job training for the locals. Company Culture and Practices Passed Down Easily The parent company culture and relevant practices and procedures can be passed down quickly if training of the local employees is conducted by expatriates from the parent company. The ideals, vision and mission of the parent company can be demonstrated through the expatriate. If the expatriate embodies these principles of the company, the culture and practices of the parent company can be transferred to the subsidiary quickly and effectively. Disadvantages of expatriates High Costs Although Employing expatriates are beneficial to a company, it is an expensive process. Relocating an expatriate with a family which can be time consuming and costly to the company. For instance, hiring an expatriate to work in China can cost as much as five times of hiring a local. This is due to the package that the expatriate is to receive as compensation. This compensation and benefits package usually consists of a hardship allowance, housing, insurance, tax and home leave, amongst other benefits. The compensation and benefits package is usually attractive to expatriates as a form of financial advancement. This makes the move to the subsidiary company and country attractive. To ensure that it is attractive enough to entice the highly skilled and experienced personnel, the compensation and benefits package has to result in a higher standard of living or the promise of career advancement. The company has to support its high costs, while the expatriate benefits from this package. Other than the compensation and benefits that the expatriate receives, the parent company also has to invest time, money and effort into pre-departure training and incur other costs such as sending the potential expatriate on a trip to assess the location. Hence, there will be a loss of man-hours. As a result of the high costs involved, it is substantial that the expatriate is well prepared for the move. This will reduce the likelihood of expatriate failure which will incur more costs. Discontent among Locals Due to highly trained, educated and skilled expatriates joining the new subsidiary, locals might be discontented when they feel that their opportunities are being taken away. Local mid-level managers might feel that they do not have the opportunity to advance in their careers. This would encourage the talent to leave the company in order to get promote. Consequently, staff turnover might rise because of expatriates holding all the senior positions in the company. This discontent among the locals could be damaging to the subsidiary company. If the company acquires a reputation for poor career advancement opportunities, talented locals are unlikely to pursue a career in that company. Therefore, the company should utilise expatriates while it is in its initial phase but train local managers to succeed the expatriate. Adapting to the New Environment Utilising expatriates to fill key positions is a risky task because of moving an expatriate and the family requires time and effort. An expatriate with children and a working spouse might be concerned about whether the spouse and children will be able to integrate into the local environment easily. To ensure ease of integration, the expatriate must be flexible and open-minded. The company also has to prepare the expatriate for the move to the new country. Expatriates, unfamiliar with the local environment and location, require more time to adapt to their new life. As a result of this unfamiliarity, the expatriate is likely to be less efficient and productive for an initial period. With low productivity, the profits of the company might decrease. Therefore, to reduce the impact of low productivity as a result of adjusting to their new life, expatriates should receive well-structured pre-departure training, preparing them on what they are to expect in the subsidiary company and country. Also, expatriates should be hired on the basis of their ability and willingness to adapt to new environments. Alternatively, they should be allowed a period of time to settle into the new country before starting work. Bibliography HTM Corporation, (2009). Expatriates in Tokyo, Japan – Outsourcing by HTM. Retrieved on 11th March 2011 from http://www.htm.co.jp/Astrategicallyusingexpacts.htm Pacific Bridge Inc., (2009). Asia – Compensation, Hiring and Retaining Employees in South East Asia. Retrieved on 11th March 2011 from http://www.pacificbridge.com/publication.asp?id=58 Pacific Bridge Inc., (2002). Asian HR eNewsletter, Retrieved on 11th March 2011 from http://www.pacificbridge.com/newslettervol.asp?vol=2no=7 Radio New Zealand International, (2009). Samoa’s Prime Minister Defends Hiring Expatriates for SamoaTel. Retrieved on 12th March 2011 from http://www.rnzi.com/pages/news.php?op=readid=46480 Tripod, (n.d.). Use of Expatriates, Retrieved on 12th May 2011 from http://members.tripod.com/cometonada/HRM.htm How to cite International human resource management, Essay examples International Human Resource Management Free Essays IHRM concerns the extent to which the core tasks change when HRM is practiced across national boundaries. On this basis, Morgan (1986) presents a model of IHRM based on the interplay between human resource tasks or activities, the national or country categories involved in HRM and the categories of employees in an international firm: †¢ the tasks of HRM (human resource planning, etc. ) †¢ national/country categories involved in HRM tasks: 1. We will write a custom essay sample on International Human Resource Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now the host country where a subsidiary may be located 2. the home country where the firm is headquartered 3. other’ countries that may be the source of labour, finance and other inputs †¢ categories of employees of an international firm: 1. host-country nationals 2. parent-country nationals 3. third-country nationals. In this model, internationalisation adds layers of complexity to the task of HRM within a particular firm. Based on the work of Perlmutter MNCs then face three strategic choices to cope with this complexity: * ethnocentric, * polycentric and * global/geocentric An ethnocentric strategy is where a company uses the same HR practices overseas as it does at home.By contrast, a polycentric strategy involves a company following local HR practice in its overseas operations. A global strategy is where a company attempts to implement common HRM policies for all its overseas operations . Of course, this implies an element of choice for senior managers and the reality is that hybrid strategies will emerge. Torrington et al. (2005: 695) argue that International HRM is also concerned with decentralisation: As an organisation increases its international activities, it inevitably steps up the degree of decentralisation, but internationalisation is not simply a form of decentralisation.It is the most complex form of decentralizing operations and involves types of difference – language, culture, economic and political systems, legislative frameworks, management styles and conventions – that are not found in organisational growth and diversification that stay within national boundaries. How the international HR manager identifies and copes with these ‘types of difference’ will be the subject of this course.A final point about international HRM is that MNCs will also wish to use HRM policies as mechanisms for the central coordination and control of international operations, in addition to shaping the organisational culture. (Myloni 2002: 182). Inevitably, there are a number of models of International HRM that attempt to explain how the strategic objectives of the organisation are balanced with local employee needs and values . In that case, it is perhaps more useful for managers to focus on specific HR policies and practices within the context of international organisations.Armstrong (2001) identifies the following: †¢ Employment policies – possible approaches: †¢ fill all key positions with parent country nationals †¢ appoint home country nationals †¢ appoint the best people regardless of nationality. †¢ Recruitment and Selection – for international assignments, look for: †¢ competency – technical, language skills, motivation etc. †¢ previous overseas experience †¢ evidence that the person shares the values of the culture in which he or she might work – ‘culture adaptability assessments’ †¢ family circumstances – both the person and spouse/partner adaptable to working overseas. Career Planning – requires tailoring to further the international perspective of the organisation. †¢ International Employee Development – the aim is to enable people to become more effective in their present job in an overseas location; account will need to be taken of cultural factors (in terms of how development programmes are delivered), and the extent to which there is central direction of programmes from the organisation, although they may be delivered locally.Human resource management (HRM) refers to the activities an organization carries out to utilize its human resources effectively These activities include: * determining the firm’s human resource strategy * staffing * performance evaluation * management development * compensation * labor relationsHRM can help the firm reduce the costs of value creation and add value by better serving customer needs HRM is more complex in an international business b ecause of differences between countries in labor markets, culture, legal systems, economic systems, and so on HRM must also determine when to use expatriate managers (citizens of one country working abroad), who should be sent on foreign assignments, how they should be compensated, how they should be trained, and how they should be reoriented when they return home Firms need to ensure there is a fit between their human resources practices and strategy In order to carry out a strategy effectively, employees need the right training, an appropriate compensation package, and a good performance appraisal system. How to cite International Human Resource Management, Papers International Human Resource Management Free Essays string(144) " network society has changed the way businesses operate; whereby almost every part of an organisation is controlled by some sort of technology\." INTRODUCTION The essay will be focused on discussing the Network Society as a new type of Social Structure or Organization of the Information Age. I will be using Castell’s theory on The Information Age to explain how the Network Society affects culture, individuals, institutions and various societies around the world.I will also touch on the Power of Identity, what it entails and its connection to various individuals in the global business environment†¦ After this I will talk about cross cultural management, its challenges and how it is implied in the business environment, analyzing the impact the theory of the Information Age has on this type of management and its challenges. We will write a custom essay sample on International Human Resource Management or any similar topic only for you Order Now I will also discuss the critiques of other theorists to this Castell’s theory and conclude with the negative impact of globalization and the need for cross cultural management in organizations. First and foremost I will touch on a relevant theory of globalization that relates to the Information Age and Cross Cultural Management. THEORY OF GLOBALIZATION There are various theorists, who have given their opinions and views on the theory of globalisation. I am going to phrase a few of them and focus on only one of these theories for the purpose of this essay. â€Å"Anthony Giddens (1990: 64) ‘the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa’. â€Å" â€Å"Globalization refers to â€Å"the compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole† (R. Robertson, Globalization, 1992: 8).† Robertson sees the globalisation theory as the coming together of the world as a single entity through a set of global ideas and putting aside the distinctiveness of cultural, societal and ethnic differences to be used in the home environments and during academic discussions â€Å"From the social theory perspective, globalization involves the flows of commodities, capital, technology, ideas, forms of culture and people across national boundaries via a global networked society â€Å"(Castell’s, 1996, 1997, 1998). â€Å"The transmutations of technology and capital, work together to create a new globalized and interconnected world. â€Å"(Castell’s, 1998) Manuel Castell is the theorist that I will be focusing on in this essay. He talks about the theory of the network society, which is an information based society where everyone and everything is connected through digital networks. The networks are the people who control or rule the network society; they are the elites of the society who have the upper hand, are more knowledgeable and have power over the excluded individuals. â€Å"A network society is a society whose social structure is made of networks powered by microelectronics-based information and communication technologies.† (Castell’s, 1996) â€Å"The Net stands for the new organizational formations based on the pervasive use of networked communication media. Network patterns are characteristic for the most advanced economic sectors, highly competitive corporations as well as for communities and social movements. â€Å"(Castell’s, 1996) The Network Society is an emerging social society or structure whose communications rely on digital networks. A digital network being global means that a society running on them would be a global society i.e. The Network Society is a Global Society. The Network Society came about as a result of the ever changing society which occurred due to the dramatic changes in technology which are controlled by the networks. Castell explains that although everyone is affected by this society, it doesn’t mean that everyone is included in it. People who aren’t part of it try to defend themselves from it. He cites the reason for everyone being affected by these networks as the fact that all central activities that manipulate and form human life around the world are being organised by global networks. The Network Society works on an Inclusion/Exclusion basis; this is a feature of it and while it searches for important add-ons that will benefit the network, it will also bypass any activity, territory or person that will not contribute to the goals or tasks assigned to the network. Part of Castell’s assumptions is the fact that under the network society, there is no class among individuals in our society and that the powers now lie in the hands of the networks. With the network society, there becomes a need for individuals to affirm their identity; this is known as the power of identity. People tend to search for their identities in order to give their lives a source of social meaning. This is a reaction got mostly from the individuals who have been excluded from the network society. Castell realised two types of reactions from these people. They either make up their own networks or exclude the networks from their lives. This power of identity is also known as the Self. â€Å"The Self symbolizes the activities through which people try to reaffirm their identities under the conditions of structural change and instability that go along with the organization of core social and economic activities into dynamic networks.† (Castell’s, 1996) CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT AND CASTELLS THEORY WHAT IS CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT? CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT â€Å"†¦is a system designed to train people in the global business about the variations of cultures, practices and preferences of consumers around the globe. It poses as a challenge for companies who participate in the global market. As time passes by, the diversity in culture, practices and preferences significantly increases, and so is the need for cross-cultural management, to be able to bridge the communication gaps for every culture.â€Å"Error! Hyperlink reference not valid. Cross Cultural Management is the examination or assessment of the human behaviour from an international perspective. With cross cultural management, managers are aware of the different cultures that exist in different industries in different parts of the world. It realises and tries to manage these different human behaviours, culture and communication issues so as to bring people together without any disputes or problems. This information age has brought about the rise of technology and the use of the internet. This network society has changed the way businesses operate; whereby almost every part of an organisation is controlled by some sort of technology. You read "International Human Resource Management" in category "Essay examples" Most jobs are now done through the internet by some e-commerce organisation, which in turn reduces the number of physical labour needed. With the rise of the global society, cross cultural management is becoming more essential for global companies to be successful with their employees as well as their consumers. It is needed to tackle the challenges that any global business might face in relation to culture and human behaviour. In order to tackle some of challenges brought about by these changes in regard to culture and human behaviour cross cultural management is essential. Some Cross Cultural Challenges that could occur are:- Mixed cultures and languages brought about by globalisation The recent growth and need of the internet as a part of management and easy processing The increasing need for a knowledge worker in knowledge driven organisations The increasing need for flexible workers and jobs There are many more challenges but the network society being a global society has helped to deal with some of these problems. Due to the compression of time and space, companies find it easier to employ the people that will be relevant for the required jobs. Also with the individualisation of labour and the growing flexibility of workers, they are able to adapt and adjust to the growing temporality of jobs. Companies now have the option to choose either part time workers and pay them for the hours worked rather than employing full time workers who are expensive and are not required most of the time. Castell talks about the network society sourcing valuable add-ons that can contribute to the goals and objectives of the network to integrate into its system and excluding those it has no need for who he says make up the ‘irrelevant planet’, this feature of the network society has contribute to some modern business challenges where there is the need for knowledgeable workers. He says that the work process is a globally integrated but labour has become individualised and therefore has no class again as ultimate power goes to those that are in charge of the networks and determine what happens in it. But his theory also says that labour is divided into two; the self programmable and generic labour. The former is skilled and flexible with the ability to learn new things, processes, tasks are able to adapt to change and are knowledgeable while the latter is unskilled and can be easily exchanged or disposed of. There are many critiques towards Castell’s theoretical assumptions. Many theorists believe that our society is still divided into classes and are against the faceless capitalism which Castell talked about. Theorists like Webster and Garnham believe that the network society is not a new type of social structure or system, and that it has been in existence over time. They argue that this network society is a gradual development of the former industrial society and is not completely a new one. They also argue that the society is still in the hands of the capitalists, as they are still the elites who have access to technology and education, and the members of this capitalist group are heading companies in the top managerial positions. The people in this positions are who Castell says are in charge of the networks so therefore the capitalists still matter in the society. It is also difficult to accept his grouping of labour, as the people in the groups do not share the same values or interests. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS However globalisation can sometimes lead to the exploitation of workers in some third world countries that offer cheap labour. Many of these workers are paid less than the normal UK or US standard of payment, making the big international companies exploit them, and some of them do not offer job security or workers rights. With this network society business do not consider the interests of their workers and are more interested in the opportunities and goals of the networks and look for people that they can integrate that will contribute to their goals. They pay less attention to cross cultural management. This is not advisable to do because in order to be successful as a global company, they need to understand the cultures and practices of the countries they move into. They need to work on integrating the local workers, consumers and culture with their own organisational culture in order to be successful in that country LIST OF REFERENCES Castells, M. (2000).The Rise of the Network Society, Second Edition. U.S.: Blackwell Publishing Castells, M. (1996, second edition, 2000). The Rise of the Network Society, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture Vol. I. Cambridge, MA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Castells, M. (1997, second edition, 2004). The Power of Identity, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture Vol. II. Cambridge, MA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Castells, M. (1998, second edition, 2000). End of Millennium, The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture Vol. III. Cambridge, MA; Oxford, UK: Blackwell. Webster, F. (2002). Theories of the Information Society. U.S.: Routledge Garnham, N. (2001). Contribution to a Political Economy of Mass-Communication. In M.G. Durnham D.M. Kellner (Eds.), Media and Cultural Studies (pp. 225-252). U.S.: Blackwell Publishing. Manuel Castells , ‘An Introduction to the Information age’ City 2: 7, 6-16 Castells, M. (2000). Materials for an exploratory theory of the network society. British Journal of Sociology Vol. No. 51 Issue No. 1 (January /March 2000) pp. 5–24 Giddens, A. (1990). The Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge and Oxford: Polity and Blackwell. Kiely, Ray, 1964–The clash of globalisations: neo-liberalism, the third way, and anti-globalisation/by Ray Kiely. p. cm. -(Historical materialism book series, ISSN 1570–1522; v. 8) R. Robertson, Globalization (London: Sage, 1992) The network society: a cross-cultural perspective / edited by Manuel Castells. p. cm. Castells, M. 1983. The City and the Grassroots: A Cross-cultural Theory of Urban Social Movements. Berkeley: University of California Press. http://cross-cultural-management.bestmanagementarticles.com/ How to cite International Human Resource Management, Essay examples

Hypothesis Testing free essay sample

Introduction The data for the first test to be conducted by our group consists of the prices of residential properties in various locations. The locations are Toronto, San Francisco and Montreal. The values of the samples are all represented in Canadian Dollars. The data taken are based on the residential property prices on January 8th 2012. Our group will execute a test to determine if there is a significant difference in the mean residential property prices for Toronto, San Francisco and Montreal. Furthermore, if the tests conclude that there is a difference in mean prices, our group will indicate where the prices are higher or lower. Hypothesis Testing For this data set, our group has chosen to conduct a one way Analysis of Variance F test (one-way ANOVA F-test). A one-way ANOVA F-test is appropriate in this example since it is a hypothesis technique that is used to compare means from three or more populations. Since the data set reflects the mean prices of residential properties in Toronto, San Francisco and Montreal, a one way ANOVA F-test is sufficient. By having at least three samples in the data, our group has eliminated the idea of testing the claim by using different tests, such as a â€Å"two sample T-test†, a â€Å"paired sample T-test† or a â€Å"two sample Z test. † In order for a one way Analysis of Variance F test to be conducted, the following conditions must be met: (1) Each sample must be selected from a normal, or approximately normal, population. (2) The samples must be independent and randomly selected. (3) Each population must have the same variance. Looking at the conditions stated above, all the samples provided by the Toronto Real Estate Board reflect data from that are randomly selected, which are independent of each other. That is, there is no correlation between the sample groups. Our group has constructed three box plots to test the normality of the sample values, one for each location. Similar to a t test, the F test is fairly non-sensitive to slight departure from normality. Since the box plots do not indicate extreme differences from a normal distribution, we can assume that the samples are selected from a normal population. The third condition states that the variances of the sample groups are equal. Therefore, our group will conduct a Levene’s Test for Homogeneity of Variance using SPSS program to test whether the data set satisfies the third assumption. Results from Levene Test Null Hypothesis:? 12 = ? 22 = ? 32 Alternative Hypothesis:? 12, ? 22, ? 32are not all equal *Ho for this instance is the claim, since Ho is a statement of equality ?12 represents the variance for the population of residential properties in Toronto, ? 22 represents the variance for the population of residential properties in San Francisco and ? 32 represents the variance for the population of residential properties in Montreal. (? =0. 05) Using the data from SPSS output, the P-value (represented by â€Å"Sig. † – Oneway DataSet 1\residential sales. sav) found on the first table – Test of Homogeneity of Variances is 0. 549. Since P-value ? ; fail to reject Ho Therefore, at 5% level of significance, there is insufficient evidence to indicate that the claim that all the variances of the samples provided are equal is false. All the conditions are therefore satisfied, and our group can proceed with the one way analysis of variance F test. Since all the conditions for a one way analysis of variance are satisfied, then the sampling distribution can now be approximated by the F distribution. Our group can now execute a one way Analysis of Variance F test by using a Post-Hoc Comparison Procedure to test the claim that â€Å"there is a significant difference in the mean residential property prices for Toronto, San Francisco and Montreal. † Null Hypothesis: µ1 =  µ2 =  µ3 Alternative Hypothesis:At least one mean is different. *Ha for this instance is the claim, since Ha is a statement of inequality Parameters  µ1 represents the mean residential property price in Toronto.  µ2 represents the mean residential property price in San Francisco, while  µ3 represents the mean residential property price in Montreal. The null hypothesis suggests that there is no difference between the means of the three samples, while the claim in the alternative hypothesis suggests that at least one mean is different. Since no level of significance was given, we assume that: ? = 0. 05 Conclusion Using the data from SPSS output, the P-value (represented by â€Å"Sig. † – One Way DataSet 1\residential sales. sav) found on the second table – ANOVA is 0. 140. Since P-Value ? ; fail to reject Ho Therefore, at 5% level of significance, there is insufficient evidence to indicate that the claim that there is a significant difference in the mean residential property prices for Toronto, San Francisco and Montreal is true. *Full SPSS Output can be found in the appendix section of the report. Part B – Difference in Lot Sizes for Residential Properties in Toronto and Vancouver Introduction The data for the second test to be conducted by our group consists of lot sizes of the residential properties that are up for sale in Toronto and Vancouver. The samples are represented in m2 (metres squared; area of the land in which the residential properties are built on). The data taken are based on the properties that are up for sale as of January 8th 2012. Our group will execute a test to determine if there is a significant difference in the lot sizes for the residential properties for sale in Toronto and Vancouver, as commissioned by the Toronto Real Estate Board. Hypothesis Testing For this data set, our group has chosen to conduct a two sample T-test. A two sample T-test is appropriate in this case because of the attempt in determining the difference between two population means when the population standard deviations are unknown. Furthermore, the data given reflects independent samples. That is, the sample selected from the population in Toronto is not related to the sample from the population in Vancouver. In order for a two sample T-test for difference of means with small independent samples to be conducted, the following conditions must be met: (1) The samples must be randomly selected. (2) The samples must be independent. (3) Each population must have a normal distribution with an unknown standard deviation. Since there is no correlation between the sample groups (Toronto and Vancouver lot sizes), a paired T-test cannot be conducted for this data set. Also, since there are exactly only two means that are being compared in the given case, and not means between three or more populations, a one-way analysis of variances test (one way ANOVA) cannot be used. Looking at the conditions stated above, the samples provided by the Toronto Real Estate Board are randomly selected and independent. By checking the normality in each of the populations, our group constructed two separate box plots for Toronto and Vancouver respectively. There is no significant evidence to conclude that both the populations are not normally distributed since the box plots resemble a normal distribution. Having the conditions satisfied, our group can proceed to execute a two sample T-test for difference of means with small independent samples in testing the claim that â€Å"there is a significant difference in the lot sizes for the residential properties for sale in Toronto and Vancouver,† as commissioned by the Toronto Real Estate Board. Null Hypothesis: µ1 =  µ2 Alternative Hypothesis: µ1 ?  µ2 *Ha for this instance is the claim, since Ha is a statement of inequality Parameters  µ1 represents the mean lot size for the first population, Toronto.  µ2 represents the mean lot size for properties for sale in Vancouver. The alternative hypothesis states that there is a significant difference between the lot sizes for the properties for sale in Toronto and Vancouver. Consequently, the null hypothesis represents a statement of equality, that the lot sizes of the properties in Toronto and Vancouver are equal. Since no level of significance was given, we assume that: ? = 0. 05 In order to distinguish whether the variances are equal or not equal, which is significant in attempting a two sample T test for difference of means for small independent samples, our group will use the SPSS output from the Levene’s Test of Equality of Variances. Results from Levene Test Null Hypothesis:? 12 = ? 22 Alternative Hypothesis:? 12 ? ?22 *Ho for this instance is the claim, since Ho is a statement of equality ?12 represents the variance for the population of lot sizes of properties for sale in Toronto while ? 22 represents the variance for the population of lot sizes of properties in San Francisco. (? =0. 05) For the purpose of this test, the claim states that the variances of the two populations are equal, as represented by Ho Using the data from SPSS output, the P-value (represented by â€Å"Sig. † – T-Test DataSet 0\LotSizes. sav) found on the second table table – Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances is 0. 000. Since P-value ? ; reject Ho Therefore, at 5% level of significance, there is sufficient evidence to indicate that the claim that the variances of the two populations are equal is false. For the purpose of the two sample T test, all results will be based on the assumption that variances are not equal. Conclusion Using the data from SPSS output, the P-value (represented by â€Å"Sig. † – T-Test DataSet 0\LotSizes. sav) found on the third table – t-test for Equality of Means (Equal Variances not assumed) is 0. 0455. (calculated as 0. 091/2, since it is a two-tailed test) Since P-Value ? ; reject Ho Therefore, at 5% level of significance, there is sufficient evidence to indicate that the claim that there is a significant difference in the lot sizes for residential properties in Toronto and Vancouver is true. *Full SPSS Output can be found in the appendix section of the report. Part C – Difference in Incomes: New York homebuyers vs Toronto homebuyers Introduction The data for the third test to be conducted by our group consists of family incomes in Toronto and New York. The samples are paired by the value of the homes purchased. (For example, the first pair in the data set shows the income of the household in Toronto and New York, whether the home cost $500 000, $200 000 or $750 000, etc. It is of great significance to point out that for each pair, the homes purchased in Toronto are of the same value as the homes purchased in New York. ) The data only reflects the incomes of the homebuyers in which, the values are represented in Canadian Dollars. Our group will execute a test for the purpose of distinguishing whether the incomes of families who had purchased homes in New York was significantly higher than the incomes of families from Toronto who had purchased homes of the same value. Hypothesis Testing For this data set, our group have chosen to conduct a paired T-test. A t-test is a statistical test that compares the means of two groups of observations. For this instance, the data are classified into the groups: family income in Toronto, and family income in New York. In order for a paired T-test to be conducted, the following conditions must be met: (1) Samples must be randomly selected. (2) Samples must be dependent. (3) Both populations must be normally distributed. Unlike the two sample T-test for small independent samples conducted in the second data set: ‘Part B’, our group have used the paired T-test to account for the correlation between the groups; that the family incomes displayed in the data set are used under the assumption that the same value of the homes purchased are used to gather the sample in Toronto and New York. A one way ANOVA F-test cannot be used for this data set since only two means are being evaluated. A different method of valuation would be used if one of the conditions listed above are not met. For example, if the data set reflects values that are independent of each other, similar to the case in ‘Part B’, then a paired T-test cannot be used. However, in this case, the conditions stated above are met. The samples are randomly selected and as stated before, dependent variables. Assuming that the family incomes are normally distributed, a paired T-test can be used. To check for the assumption of normality in each of the two populations, our group has created a box plot for each of the sample groups. For both of the samples, there appears to be only a slight offset from normality. Therefore, the assumption that these populations are normally distributed can be assumed. Having all three conditions satisfied, our group believes that a paired T-test is the best method of valuation to distinguish, as required by the Toronto Real Estate Board whether the claim that â€Å"the incomes of families who purchased houses in New York are significantly higher than the incomes of families who purchased houses of similar value in Toronto. † Null Hypothesis: µd ? 0 Alternative Hypothesis: µd 0 *Ha for this instance is the claim, since Ha is a statement of inequality Parameters  µd represents the mean difference. The mean difference is calculated by subtracting the total  µ of the incomes of homebuyers in Toronto (off the sample) from the total  µ of the incomes of homebuyers in New York (off the sample). In the claim as stated in the alternative hypothesis, the mean difference between the data on New York and Toronto (respectively) is greater than zero. Consequently, the null hypothesis represents the mean difference between the data on New York and Toronto (respectively) is less than or equal to zero. Since no level of significance was given, we assume that: ? = 0. 05 Conclusion Using the data from SPSS output, the P-value (represented by â€Å"Sig. † – T-Test DataSet 0\incomes. sav) found on the fifth table – Paired Samples Test is 0. 00002. (calculated as 0. 00004/2) Since P-Value ? ; reject Ho Therefore, at 5% level of significance, there is sufficient evidence to support the claim that the incomes of families who purchased houses in New York are significantly higher than the incomes of families who purchased houses of similar value in Toronto. *Full SPSS Output can be found in the appendix section of the report. Appendix – A Data Sets Part A – Residential Property Prices, on January 8th 2012 (in Canadian Dollars) Toronto San Francisco Montreal 720001 597114 260976 250025 350000 1141734 531968 693303 150024 391546 350140 157679 253440 397924 150000 251929 684874 1021251 1181788 350000 1123663 1040350 372008 158139 259516 432300 150000 250000 1194071 237032 1299055 350073 153574 279536 920792 150160 250001 935680 150044 257339 1394330 994698 253829 350000 150000 256582 350053 167171 250002 350748 968300 509638 755749 536302 375351 1083741 170861 268679 350056 1192483 250661 365259 303747 250000 399823 497641 1281119 350045 151925 721976 786536 150000 250002 409025 150359 255660 358312 150004 665974 352342 979221 1236283 1225525 150003 250003 790511 299575 609906 350000 159163 Part B – Lot Sizes of Properties for Sale, on January 8th 2012 (in m2) Toronto Vancouver 114 117 262 129 329 120 104 118 285 128 101 159 194 212 112 222 187 114 98 129 100 116 251 197 99 123 333 116 235 137 148 115 211 175 299 118 107 117 106 127 108 104 130 102 147 Part C – Family Income Paired by Purchase Price (in Canadian Dollars) Pair Toronto New York 1 72068 124174 2 70336 68999 3 106144 113291 4 66032 38411 5 68221 75876 6 68241 106390 7 72555 83540 8 107401 131762 9 107633 121399 10 65647 60630 11 73041 100185 12 101180 158397 13 69264 77775 14 120293 127590 15 81531 99192 16 165996 179133 17 105039 123537 18 67512 80347 19 97143 129711 20 71947 92019 21 77992 77580 22 90858 107446 23 142215 203356 24 101219 128540 25 92541 122134 Appendix B – SPSS Data Output The following are printed from the SPSS program. The following tables show results from various tests conducted in an attempt to determine the validity of three separate claims, as commissioned by the Toronto Real Estate Board. The tables are arranged in accordance with the order in which the tests were conducted in, with the order being the following: (1) One way ANOVA test, containing a Test of Homogeneity of Variances and Post Hoc Comparison Method – Part A (Residential Property Price – Multiple Comparisons; Toronto, San Francisco and Montreal) (2) T-test for Equality of Means for Independent Samples, containing Levene’s Test for Equality of Variances – Part B (Lot Sizes of Properties for Sale in Toronto and Vancouver) (3) T-test for Paired Samples – Part C (Family Incomes paired by Purchase Price in Toronto and New York) *All SPSS Outputs are located in the pages following.